Biblical Lexicon

The act of making things right between God and humanity through sacrifice.

Atonement describes the restoration of relationship between God and humanity broken by sin. The Hebrew kaphar means "to cover" — seen in the Old Testament sacrificial system where animal blood covered sin. The Greek hilasmos means "propitiation" — satisfying the just requirements of God. The word "atonement" itself was coined by the English Bible translator William Tyndale (c. 1526) to express the idea of "at-one-ment" — being made one with God.

An outward sign of inward faith — immersion in water symbolising death to sin and new life in Christ.

The Greek baptisma comes from baptizo meaning "to immerse" or "to dip." Baptism in the New Testament is closely associated with repentance and faith (Acts 2:38), union with Christ (Romans 6:3–4), and entry into the church. Denominations differ on mode (immersion vs sprinkling) and subjects (believers only vs infants). The Didache (c. 50–120 AD) — one of the earliest Christian documents — gives detailed instructions on baptism practice.

A solemn, binding agreement between God and His people.

A covenant is a formal, binding relationship established between parties with defined commitments and consequences. The Bible is structured around major covenants: Noahic, Abrahamic, Mosaic, Davidic, and the New Covenant in Christ. The Hebrew berit appears over 280 times in the Old Testament. Covenant theology, systematised by theologians like Johannes Cocceius (1603–1669), sees all of Scripture as the unfolding of God's covenant relationship with humanity.

Trust and reliance on God — not just belief but confident dependence.

Biblical faith is not blind belief or wishful thinking — it is confident trust based on reliable evidence. The Hebrew emunah carries the idea of firmness and faithfulness. The Greek pistis means trust, belief, and loyalty combined. Hebrews 11:1 gives the classic definition. The Westminster Confession of Faith (1647) defines saving faith as "accepting, receiving, and resting upon Christ alone for justification, sanctification, and eternal life."

Undeserved favour and kindness from God toward people.

Grace is the free, unmerited favour of God toward humanity. In the New Testament, the Greek word charis appears over 150 times and describes God's disposition to bless people regardless of their merit. Unlike mercy (which withholds deserved punishment), grace gives undeserved blessing. The Protestant Reformation, led by Martin Luther, placed grace at the centre of Christian salvation — summarised in the phrase "sola gratia" (grace alone).

Good news — specifically the good news about Jesus Christ.

The word gospel comes from the Old English "godspel" meaning "good news" or "good story," translating the Greek euangelion. In the Greco-Roman world, euangelion announced a great victory or the birth of an emperor. The New Testament radically reappropriates this word: the truly good news is not Caesar's reign but Christ's death and resurrection. The gospel is summarised in 1 Corinthians 15:3–4.

The third person of the Trinity — the presence and power of God living in believers.

The Holy Spirit is not a force or energy but a person — the third member of the Trinity. The Hebrew ruach means "breath" or "wind"; the Greek pneuma carries the same meaning. The Holy Spirit convicts of sin, regenerates (gives new birth), indwells believers, and produces fruit (Galatians 5:22–23). John Owen's Pneumatologia (1674) remains one of the most thorough treatments of the Holy Spirit's person and work.

God becoming human in the person of Jesus Christ.

The Incarnation is the doctrine that the eternal Son of God took on human flesh and became fully human while remaining fully divine. The term comes from the Latin in carne meaning "in flesh." The Council of Chalcedon (451 AD) defined this as two natures — human and divine — united in one person without confusion or separation. Athanasius of Alexandria (296–373 AD) defended this doctrine against the Arian heresy in his landmark work On the Incarnation.

Being declared "not guilty" and righteous before God.

Justification is a legal term describing God's act of declaring a sinner righteous on the basis of faith in Christ. The Greek root dikaios means "righteous" or "just." Martin Luther's rediscovery of this doctrine — that justification is by faith alone (sola fide), not by works — sparked the Protestant Reformation in 1517. Luther described it as "the article by which the church stands or falls."

The reign and rule of God — both a present reality and a future promise.

The Kingdom of God was the central theme of Jesus' teaching. The Greek basileia means "reign" or "rule" — not primarily a place but a dynamic reality of God's sovereign authority. Scholars debate whether it is "already" (present in Jesus' ministry) or "not yet" (fully arriving at His return). George Eldon Ladd's The Gospel of the Kingdom (1959) popularised the "already/not yet" framework that most evangelical scholars now accept.

The Anointed One — the promised deliverer sent by God.

Messiah comes from the Hebrew mashiach meaning "anointed one." In ancient Israel, kings, priests, and prophets were anointed with oil as a sign of divine appointment. The Jewish people expected a future Messiah who would restore Israel and establish God's kingdom. Jesus of Nazareth claimed to be this Messiah — a claim confirmed, Christians believe, by His resurrection. The Greek translation Christos gives us the title "Christ."

Not giving people the punishment they deserve.

Mercy is the withholding of deserved judgment. The Hebrew hesed is one of the richest words in the Old Testament — often translated "steadfast love," "lovingkindness," or "mercy" — describing God's loyal, covenant love. The Greek eleos carries a similar meaning. Mercy differs from grace: mercy does not give what is deserved (punishment); grace gives what is not deserved (blessing). Katharine Doob Sakenfeld's The Meaning of Hesed (1978) is the definitive study of this word.

The satisfying of God's righteous wrath through sacrifice.

Propitiation refers specifically to the appeasement of divine wrath. It is distinct from expiation (which removes guilt) — propitiation turns away God's righteous anger against sin. The Greek hilasterion is used in Romans 3:25 and also refers to the "mercy seat" on the Ark of the Covenant in the Septuagint (the Greek Old Testament). Leon Morris and John Stott defended this translation against those who preferred the softer "expiation."

Being bought back or set free from bondage to sin.

Redemption is the act of paying a price to liberate someone from slavery or bondage. In the Old Testament, the kinsman-redeemer (go'el) would buy back a family member sold into slavery. This imagery is fulfilled in Christ, who paid the ultimate price — His life — to free humanity from sin and death. The Greek apolytrosis literally means "release by payment of a ransom."

A genuine turning away from sin and toward God.

Repentance is more than feeling sorry — it is a change of mind (Greek metanoia: meta = change, noia = mind) that leads to a change of direction. The Hebrew teshuvah means "to return" — to turn back to God. Martin Luther's very first of his 95 Theses (1517) states: "When our Lord and Master Jesus Christ said 'Repent' (Matthew 4:17), he willed the entire life of believers to be one of repentance."

Rising from the dead to a new, glorified bodily life.

Resurrection is not resuscitation (returning to the same mortal body) but transformation into a new, glorified, imperishable body. The Greek anastasis means "a standing up again." Jesus' resurrection is the cornerstone of Christian faith — Paul writes that without it, faith is futile (1 Corinthians 15:17). The historian N.T. Wright's The Resurrection of the Son of God (2003) is considered the most comprehensive scholarly defence of the historical resurrection.

Being right with God — morally perfect and in proper relationship with Him.

Righteousness in Scripture has both a relational and moral dimension. The Hebrew tsedaqah describes conformity to a covenant standard — being "right" in relationship. The Greek dikaiosyne carries the same weight. A key debate in the Reformation was whether righteousness is "infused" (Catholics) or "imputed" (Protestants) — Martin Luther argued that Christ's righteousness is credited (imputed) to believers through faith, not earned through works.

The ongoing process of being made holy.

Sanctification is the work of the Holy Spirit transforming a believer's character over time to reflect Christ more fully. It is distinct from justification (which is instantaneous and legal) — sanctification is progressive and experiential. The root word hagios means "holy" or "set apart." John Wesley's theology of sanctification, developed in the 18th century, emphasised the possibility of entire sanctification in this life.

Being rescued from sin and its consequences — restored to right relationship with God.

Salvation is the comprehensive term for God's rescue of humanity from sin, death, and judgment. The Hebrew yeshua is also the name of Jesus (Yeshua) — meaning "God saves." The Greek soteria covers past (justification), present (sanctification), and future (glorification) dimensions. The ordo salutis (order of salvation) was systematised by Reformed theologians including Francis Turretin (1623–1687) to describe the logical sequence of salvation's application.

Missing the mark — falling short of God's perfect standard.

The primary Greek word for sin, hamartia, is an archery term meaning "to miss the mark." The Hebrew chattath similarly means "to miss" or "to go wrong." Sin is not just moral failure — it is a fundamental rupture in the relationship between humanity and God. Augustine of Hippo (354–430 AD) developed the doctrine of original sin, arguing that Adam's sin corrupted all humanity. His Confessions (397 AD) remains one of the most honest explorations of sin's power ever written.

One God existing as three distinct persons — Father, Son, and Holy Spirit.

The doctrine of the Trinity holds that God is one being in three co-equal, co-eternal persons. The word "Trinity" does not appear in the Bible but was coined by Tertullian of Carthage (c. 160–220 AD) in his work Against Praxeas. The doctrine was formally defined at the Council of Nicaea (325 AD) and expanded at the Council of Constantinople (381 AD), producing the Nicene Creed.